2008年11月20日星期四

Chessboard


A chessboard is the type of checkerboard used in the game of chess, and consists of 64 squares (eight rows and eight columns) arranged in two alternating colors (light and dark). The colors are called "black" and "white" (or "light" and "dark"), although the actual colors are usually dark green and buff for boards used in competition, and often natural shades of light and dark woods for home boards. Materials vary widely; while wooden boards are generally used in high-level games, vinyl and cardboard are common for low-level and informal play. Decorative glass and marble boards are available but not usually accepted for sanctioned games.
The board is structurally similar to that used in English draughts (American checkers), although the latter is usually in red and black. Some low-cost sets (especially those sold in toy stores) may use red and black squares and include pieces for both games; though suitable for informal play, such boards are often not accepted for sanctioned play, depending on the local authority's rules on equipment standards.
The board is always placed so that the rightmost square on the row nearest each player is a "white" square. The size of the board is usually chosen to be appropriate for the chess pieces used, and squares should be between 50mm and 65mm in size (2.0 to 2.5 inches). A square size approximately 1.25 to 1.3 times the size of the base of the king is preferred (the base of the king should be about 78 percent as wide as the size of the squares.)
In modern commentary, the columns (called files) are labeled by the letters a to h from left to right from the white player's point of view, and the rows (called ranks) by the numbers 1 to 8, with 1 being closest to the white player, thus providing a standard notation called algebraic chess notation.
In older English commentary, the files are labeled by the piece originally occupying its first rank (i.e. Queen, King's rook, Queen's bishop), and ranks by the numbers 1 to 8 from each player's point of view, depending on the move being described. This is called descriptive chess notation, and is no longer commonly used.
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Bicycle


The bicycle, cycle, or bike is a pedal-driven, human-powered vehicle with two wheels attached to a frame, one behind the other.
Bicycles were introduced in the 19th century and now number about one billion worldwide.They are the principal means of transportation in many regions. They also provide a popular form of recreation, and have been adapted for such uses as children's toys, adult fitness, military and police applications, courier services, and competitive sports.
The basic shape and configuration of a typical bicycle has changed little since the first chain-driven model was developed around 1885. Many details have been improved, especially since the advent of modern materials and computer-aided design. These have allowed for a proliferation of specialized designs for particular types of cycling.
The bicycle has had a considerable effect on human society, in both the cultural and industrial realms. In its early years, bicycle construction drew on pre-existing technologies; more recently, bicycle technology has, in turn, contributed both to old and new areas.


History
Several innovators contributed to the history of the bicycle by developing precursor human-powered vehicles. The documented ancestors of today's modern bicycle were known as push bikes (still called push bikes outside of North America), draisines, or hobby horses. Being the first human means of transport to make use of the two-wheeler principle, the draisine (or mistmashine, "running machine"), invented by the German Baron Karl von Drais, is regarded as the archetype of the bicycle. It was introduced by Drais to the public in Mannheim in summer 1817 and in Paris in 1818. Its rider sat astride a wooden frame supported by two in-line wheels and pushed the vehicle along with his/her feet while steering the front wheel.

A penny-farthing or ordinary bicycle photographed in the Škoda museum in the Czech Republic
In the early 1860s, Frenchmen Pierre Michaux and Pierre Lallement took bicycle design in a new direction by adding a mechanical crank drive with pedals on an enlarged front wheel. Several why-not-the-rear-wheel inventions followed, the best known being the rod-driven velocipede by Scotsman Thomas McCall in 1869. The French creation, made of iron and wood, developed into the "penny-farthing" (more formally an "ordinary bicycle", a retronym, since there were then no other kind). It featured a tubular steel frame on which were mounted wire spoked wheels with solid rubber tires. These bicycles were difficult to ride due to their very high seat and poor weight distribution.

Bicycle in Plymouth, England at the start of the 20th century
The dwarf ordinary addressed some of these faults by reducing the front wheel diameter and setting the seat further back. This necessitated the addition of gearing, effected in a variety of ways, to attain sufficient speed. Having to both pedal and steer via the front wheel remained a problem. J. K. Starley, J. H. Lawson, and Shergold solved this problem by introducing the chain drive (originated by Henry Lawson's unsuccessful "bicyclette"),connecting the frame-mounted pedals to the rear wheel. These models were known as dwarf safeties, or safety bicycles, for their lower seat height and better weight distribution. Starley's 1885 Rover is usually described as the first recognizably modern bicycle. Soon, the seat tube was added, creating the double-triangle diamond frame of the modern bike.
Further innovations increased comfort and ushered in a second bicycle craze, the 1890s' Golden Age of Bicycles. In 1888, Scotsman John Boyd Dunlop introduced the pneumatic tire, which soon became universal. Soon after, the rear freewheel was developed, enabling the rider to coast. This refinement led to the 1898 invention of coaster brakes. Derailleur gears and hand-operated cable-pull brakes were also developed during these years, but were only slowly adopted by casual riders. By the turn of the century, cycling clubs flourished on both sides of the Atlantic, and touring and racing became widely popular.
Bicycles and horse buggies were the two mainstays of private transportation just prior to the automobile, and the grading of smooth roads in the late 19th Century was stimulated by the widespread advertising, production, and use of these devices.
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Oil lamp




An oil lamp is a simple vessel used to produce light continuously for a period of time from a fuel source. The use of oil lamps extends from prehistory to the present day. While a basic form of lighting prior to the era of widespread electric lighting, oil lamps today are popular for mood lighting, as an alternative to candles, or as an alternate source of emergency lighting when electricity is not available. Many oil lamps provide a small wheel that when turned, moves the wick up and down so that the user can adjust the light produced. Some lamps sold now are both the traditional farmer's lantern, made mostly of metal, with a glass chimney, and the old-fashioned hurricane lamps, made mostly of glass, with only the wick holder assembly made of metal.
Olive oil lamps continued in wide use in countries around the Mediterranean Sea well into the 19th century, with the lamps being mass produced out of metal (most commonly brass or bronze), but otherwise little changed in design from lamps of some 2,000 years earlier. In 1780 the Argand lamp was invented and quickly replaced the ancient form. It was, in turn, replaced by the kerosene lamp in about 1850. In small towns and rural areas these continued in use well into the 20th century. The light given by an olive oil lamp is significantly brighter than a candle, but significantly less than the Argand lamp or the kerosene or paraffin burning lamp.


Structure & Function

Napalese Buddhist bronze ritual vessel with oil lamp. The handle is cast as a serpent with open jaws, and the plate fronting the oil tray, features a bas relief of Ganesh with consort. In use, a flickering light would fall upon the deity.
Oil lamps were used not only for lighting, but also for funerary and votive purposes. Lamps were used for domestic purposes in homes and for public purposes in temples and public buildings.
By studying the lamp's designs, symbols, structure and decorations, and the material of which it is made, we can identify the age and perhaps the locality of the lamp. The lamp can also give us insights into the culture of its users and their social status.
Occasionally the design of the lamps also reveal the female reproductive system. Indian bronze lamps with a protruding central portion are supposed to project the male genitalia on a female womb with light representing 'origin of life' in most cases.
Oil lamps were made from a wide variety of media like gold, bronze, silver, stone and terra-cotta. The most commonly used material was fired clay; many terra-cotta and bronze lamps have been unearthed. In most cases, the production and distribution of lamps was local, but in some instances they were produced by factories and exported to different areas.
The usual size of a terra-cotta oil lamp is 7-10 cm in length and 3 cm in depth, with the walls being around 0.5 cm thick. Lamps with more than one nozzle are usually larger in size.
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Jewellery of peoples that migrated through Ukraine




Trypillians at their early period of civilization used naturally occurring metals such as copper for their jewellery which was rather primitive - simple spiral armlets, rings, necklaces from shells, copper tubes mother-of-pearl discs, more seldom - diadems.
Cimmerians brought with them many new ideas. Their vision of the environment was reflected in their floristic or animalistic compositions, made of bronze or sometimes iron.

Scythian Pectoral. 4th-century B.C. Discovered in the kurgan "Tovsta Mohyla", Dnipropetrovsk region. Displayed in Museum of Historical Treasures of Ukraine, Kiev.

5th-century B.C. Scythian cast gold comb found in the Solokha kurgan. At the moment displayed in Hermitage Museum.
Fertile soils and generous nature along the Black Sea coast and the Dnieper riverside attracted Hellenes as long ago as in the Iron Age. At the same time, Scythians, who had come from Asia and replaced Cimmerians, appeared on the territory, which lay farther to the North. They resided here for a long time and appeared to be suitable trade partners and rich customers for the Greeks. Many masterpieces created by Greek and Scythian goldsmiths are widely known. For body, armament and harness ornaments, they employed all of metalwork techniques common at the time. These consisted of casting, coinage, engraving, gilding, inlaying, stone setting and others. The images of fantastic animals (griffins, sphinxes, winged animals, and often beasts with human heads) that were depicted in their works, came to be known as the peculiar "Scythian animalistic" style. Techniques, which had once been rather primitive, improved considerably during the prosperous times of the Scythian State. Stylization of images developed into a realistic method of interpreting complicated zoomorphic compositions.
The Sarmatians conquered the Scythian kingdom and thus occupied their living area. This culture brought along new traditions. Polychrome style, the most characteristic of which, is a process by which an animal's body is covered with inserts of blue paste or turquoise in soldered mountings.

Ancient Greek jewelry Pontika, showing a Heracles knot
Greek art of the Black Sea region made some changes to the Sarmatian style. Most notably it increased the color range. Interestingly, together with precious metals and gems glass is found in the jewellery of this time. Often made in this style were Greek brooch-fibulas.
Besides Sarmatian, Celtic art began to penetrate into southern regions of Ukrainian territory. In Roman provinces the so-called Renaissance of Celtic handicraft took place, in particular, it was manifested in the form of jewellery. These ornaments invaded the region of the Black Sea and to the North in barbarian world. Another way of penetration of Celtic jewellery into the present day territory of Ukraine was trade and cultural contacts with northern tribes. At a certain time Celtic art permeated into the British Isles territory, Germany and the Baltic Sea coast and from there it finally came to Ukraine. As a matter of fact, all archaeological culture from any particular region in Ukraine contains a sufficient amount of Celtic elements in the styles of arms and jewellery production. Jewellery that came to Ukrainian terrain from the East continued its way to the West in transformed shape. It is worthwhile mentioning the Goths, who came to the area without their own distinct artistic culture. Having conquered the cities on the Black Sea shores and having adopted artistic culture of Hellenes and Sarmatian barbarians, they brought to European jewellery polychrome and animal styles that contributed to the development of the original "merovingian" type of jewellery.
Under the pressure of the even greater war-inclined Huns, the Goths left the territory they had occupied. These Asiatic people brought a somewhat different version of the polychrome style, which was characterized by color inlays in soldered partitions and the presence of background patterns of filigree and granulation. During this time, further migration of people from Asia (Avars, Bulgars, Khazars, Ugrs, Pechengs) to the Ukrainian steppes had been taking place. Theses people brought along destruction and captivity. Every one of these tribes moving to the West took a part of local artistry with them, at the same time settling down and mixing with native inhabitants.
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2008年11月19日星期三

Diamond Jim Brady


James Buchanan Brady (12 August 1856–13 April 1917), also known as Diamond Jim Brady, was an American businessman, financier, and philanthropist of the Gilded Age.
Born in New York City to a modest household, Brady worked his way up from bellboy and messenger. After gaining employment in the New York Central Railroad system, he became the chief assistant to the general manager by the age of 21. At 23, Brady parlayed his knowledge of the railroad industry and its officials to become a highly successful salesman for Manning, Maxwell and Moore, a railroad supply company.
Known for his penchant for jewels, especially diamonds, he collected precious stones and jewelry in excess of US$ 2 million (adjusted for 2005 dollars, approx. $50 million).
Brady's enormous appetite and resultant girth were as legendary as his wealth. It was not unusual for Brady to eat enough food for ten people at a sitting. George Rector, owner of a favorite restaurant, described Brady as "the best 25 customers I ever had."A typical Brady breakfast would be: eggs, pancakes, pork chops, cornbread, fried potatoes, hominy, muffins, and a beefsteak. For refreshment, a gallon of orange juice—or "golden nectar", as he called his favorite drink. Lunch might be two lobsters, deviled crabs, clams, oysters and beef, with a few pies for dessert. The usual evening meal began with an appetizer of two or three dozen oysters, six crabs, and a few servings of green turtle soup, followed by a main course of two whole ducks, six or seven lobsters, a sirloin steak, two servings of terrapin and a host of vegetables. For dessert, the gourmand enjoyed pastries and a two pound box of candy.
"Diamond Jim" is also known for his romantic association with singer Lillian Russell, a famously voluptuous beauty of the era. It is said that her eating habits were a perfect match for his own.
A gregarious man, Brady was a mainstay of Broadway nightlife. He often dined with popular society. After further investments in the stock market, Brady accumulated wealth estimated at $12 million. He was also known for being the first person in New York City to own an automobile (in 1895).
Brady donated a significant sum in 1912 to Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland, where he had once been treated. The hospital created the James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute] in his honor.
Brady never married, and after his death his estate was distributed to many institutions, most notably New York Hospital. When his body was examined, doctors discovered that his stomach was eight times larger than that of an average person.
He was the inspiration for a 1935 film written by Preston Sturges entitled Diamond Jim.
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